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Pearson, Polkinghome & Tahir, Sorting out shipwrecked cultural artifacts

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underwater research
Dr. Holly Jones-Amin (Grimwade Centre), Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Adria Yuky Kristiana, Sutenti (Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries), and Alqiz Lukman (National Research and Innovation Agency) examine an ‘orphaned object’. Photo by Martin Polkinghorne.

Underwater cultural heritage: why we’re studying ‘orphaned objects’ to work out which shipwrecks they came from

by Natali Pearson, University of Sydney; Martin Polkinghorne, Flinders University;
Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Flinders University, and Zainab Tahir, Flinders University

A lot of the recent talk about maritime issues in Southeast Asia has focused on issues such as security, the Blue Economy, law enforcement and climate change. But there’s one maritime challenge that’s gone underdiscussed: underwater heritage.

We are co-investigators on a research project called Reuniting Cargoes: Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Maritime Silk Route.

Since the 1960s, Southeast Asia has seen a big rise in both commercial and illicit salvage of underwater cultural heritage. These items are often taken from unprotected sites and sold through middlemen and auction houses to collectors and museums. In this process, the connection to their original locations is lost or obscured, diminishing their cultural and historical significance.

This project aims to address that challenge by working out which object came from what shipwreck, and how it came to be out of the water and in collections.

To do this, we need to figure out where an item originally came from by applying the latest methods of archaeological science. Talking with local communities and authorities is another important way of gathering information about which shipwreck a particular object might have come from.

Learning more about and reconnecting items like this can change how communities relate to them. It can enhance everyone’s understanding of these artefacts beyond their commercial value.

What we are doing

We are studying two ceramic collections.

The first is in Australia, consisting of about 2,300 objects purchased from antique markets across Indonesia by a private collector over many decades.

The second is in Indonesia, consisting of about 230,000 objects. This collection was amassed by the Indonesian government and is now at a shipwreck artefact warehouse in Jakarta.

Our goal is to work out which shipwrecks the items came from.

Why?

Ancient shipwrecks, sunken cargoes and the submerged past are underwater cultural heritage.

A 2001 UNESCO convention prioritizes protection and preservation of these sites, and international cooperation to achieve those goals. The central idea is that cultural heritage (including the kind found underwater) can help foster local, national and regional identity.

We see taking these “orphaned objects” languishing in private or institutional collections and reconnecting them with their original countries and communities as an important part of that broader goal.

Shipwrecks and their cargo can be sites of conflict

From South America to the South China Sea, state and non-state actors (such as curious tourists or people seeking to profit from shipwrecks) are making various claims on ancient shipwrecks. Some are motivated by nationalism, others by money.

It’s also important to remember local communities engage with heritage in unique ways. What makes sense to policy makers, scientists or communities in one place won’t always make sense to those in another place.

Our project seeks to reconnect “orphaned” objects – cultural objects that have been recovered unethically, illegally or in some other problematic way. One example is underwater sites that have been commercially salvaged (meaning items that were recovered and then sold for profit) rather than scientifically excavated.

Identifying the original find-spots for these orphaned objects won’t be without its scientific, political and legal challenges.

But challenges can also represent opportunities. This project requires collaboration between Indonesian and Australian project partners. That builds capacity on both sides. Along the way, we’re helping develop mechanisms that could guide the return of other heritage items more broadly to their places of origin.

Trade ceramics in storage at the KKP Cileungsi warehouses, West Java. Image courtesy:These ceramics are among the ‘orphaned objects’ we are researching.Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia

Maritime heritage tourism and sustainable development

Shipwrecks are fascinating scientifically and historically. But they can also reveal local, national and international tensions.

Take, for example, the 9th century shipwreck discovered in 1998 in waters near Belitung Island, Indonesia. Indonesian laws at the time clearly allowed commercial operators to salvage shipwrecks in its territorial waters, even if this went against international standards established by UNESCO.

Then there’s the 18th century Spanish ship, the San José, which lies in the waters of the Caribbean and is the subject of a multi-country legal fight over who should get the treasure it carried.

On the other hand, shipwrecks have political value. They can bring people together around shared goals or identities. They can be better integrated into sustainable development strategies, including through community-based marine tourism.

Marine heritage tourism initiatives will enable local communities to benefit financially from heritage. Adopting environmentally sustainable practices can also help protect marine ecosystems and ensure the long-term viability of underwater cultural heritage.

This will help to grow local economies by offering different kinds of jobs, not just fishing, while also minimizing underwater cultural heritage looting and illicit trafficking.

Successful initiatives along these lines are already underway in Indonesia, in places such as Karawang, Abang Island and Tidore.

Dr. Muja Hiduddin and Fatimah Rahman lead a ceremony at the Southeast Asian Ceramic Archaeology Laboratory at Flinders University.Ancient shipwrecks, sunken cargoes and the submerged past are underwater cultural heritage.Priyambudi Sulistiyanto

Reconnecting orphaned objects

Orphaned objects have not received the attention they deserve.

Such objects are generally anathema to scholars, because of concerns that to study them is to legitimize them.

We agree there are important ethical considerations at play. But we also recognize these orphaned objects are a crucial part of broader geopolitical and maritime security debates.

To exclude them from scholarly study, as has largely been the case to date, is to risk missing an essential piece of the maritime puzzle. The Conversation

Natali Pearson, Senior Lecturer, Sydney Southeast Asia Centre, University of Sydney; Martin Polkinghorne, Associate Professor in Archaeology, Flinders University; Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Maritime-Underwater Archaeologist and PhD Candidate on Archaeology (Humanities), Flinders University, and Zainab Tahir, Marine Heritage Analyst and PhD Candidate, Flinders University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

 

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Schilke, The shady side of loyalty

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A little trust can be a dangerous thing. Bribery, a graphic by Nick Youngson CC BY-SA 3.0 Pix4free.

Trust in the shadows: How loyalty fuels illicit economic transactions

by Oliver Schilke – University of Arizona

When you think about economic activities that society tends to frown on – like offering bribes, paying for the services of a sex worker or even selling human organs – “trust” and “loyalty” might not be the first things that come to mind. But these seemingly positive characteristics play a key role in letting people disguise illicit transactions as something more socially acceptable, my colleague Gabriel Rossman and I recently found in a series of experiments.

As a professor of management who leads the University of Arizona’s Center for Trust Studies, I’ve long been interested in how people conceal illicit economic activity. One important way is through what scholars call “obfuscation” – hiding the true nature of an exchange to avoid social judgment or legal scrutiny. For example, a person who wants to hire a sex worker may disguise their payment as a more socially acceptable “gift,” while someone who wants to bribe a politician may instead make a “campaign contribution.”

Through our experiments, we investigated the strategies people use to mask morally questionable transactions – what researchers call “obfuscated disreputable exchanges.” We found that people decide to engage in these shady activities based on how much they trust the other person they’re working with.

In our experiments, we put 1,276 participants in the shoes of a real estate developer whose building permit application needs an exception to the zoning ordinance. Participants were then told that the city building inspector’s pickup truck had broken down, and that if they bought him a new one, he might be more inclined to grease the wheels for their application.

We found that participants were more likely to choose this option – an obfuscated exchange – instead of inaction or outright bribery when they believed they could trust their counterpart. We also found that the type of trust matters: When trust is based on belief in the other person’s loyalty, people are more willing to proceed with the gift. However, when trust stems from a belief in the other’s ethical standards, they hesitate, fearing the moral implications of their actions.

Why it matters

In the shadows of the legitimate market, a different kind of economy thrives – one dominated by the transfer of goods and services that society considers morally wrong. Our study probes this hidden economy, examining how individuals navigate transactions that are cloaked in moral ambiguity. In addition to helping us understand the mechanisms of these illicit exchanges, our work offers fundamental insights into human behavior and social norms.

Our findings point to a basic fact: People want to pursue their own self-interest while also being liked by others. When those two goals conflict, there’s a strong temptation to put up a false appearance of respectability. And trust plays a key role in making that happen.

One important implication of our research is that trust has a dark side. This runs contrary to the positive view of trust that many researchers have, thanks to its role in encouraging cooperation and reducing transaction costs. Our investigation shows that trust can also have effects that are less socially desirable – such as enabling bribery.

Trust can play conflicting roles because it has two fundamental dimensions: loyalty and ethics. Loyalty refers to someone’s goodwill and their desire to help, while ethics has to do with acceptable principles – notably rectitude and truthfulness – that a person subscribes to. Both play an important role in shaping whether people are viewed as trustworthy.

People often believe that loyalty and ethics go hand in hand. This makes some sense: If someone acts ethically toward their community, it’s reasonable to assume they would honor their commitments to an individual, too. However, this connection breaks down during disreputable exchanges. Our work shows that people are more willing to engage in shady business with those who demonstrate loyalty-based trustworthiness and less likely with those whose trustworthiness is grounded in a sense of ethics.

Another intriguing facet of our findings is that loyalty-based trustworthiness – as opposed to trustworthiness rooted in ethics – reduces moral discomfort, or the negative feelings associated with morally inappropriate action. Each party adjusts their sense of what it means to be good if they trust that the other won’t judge them for a bit of wickedness.

What still isn’t known

Our investigation opens up new avenues of inquiry about how trust works in morally gray markets. It raises questions about the fragility of trust in these contexts, the impact of changing social norms on what people consider morally acceptable, and the broader implications for our understanding of trust and morality in society.

As researchers continue to uncover the layers of trust that underpin the shadow economy, these questions invite us to reflect on how people negotiate the tension between personal gain and community moral standards – a dynamic that shapes not just hidden economies but the very fabric of society.

 

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¿Wappin? Depende de su conciencia / It depends on your conscience

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from Huckleberry Finn
Jim and Huck – illustration from Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn by E.W. Kemble.

Un momento para decidir lo que eres
A moment to decide what you are

Kafu Banton – Soy Salvo
https://youtu.be/tBHc5nNlQT0?si=DvOHO5jg4M3pBYKF

Gondwana – Sentimiento Original
https://youtu.be/BxM4aBJbNdU?si=95Dx19MwHI7TfDh5

Erykah Badu – Next Lifetime
https://youtu.be/07uSAIcXFmg?si=09LD_uaxejmp9QZp

Mad Professor, Joe Ariwa & Sis Aisha – Dour Fest 2022
https://www.youtube.com/live/LL9aqrfc4EQ?si=w8FF1yfuyCaAlpBX

Lana Del Rey & Billie Eilish – Ocean Eyes / Video Games
https://youtu.be/Kp2aiFuVlWM?si=vhZpB_vfsIglRKlM

Døvydås & Chena Roxx – Hendrix-style jam
https://youtu.be/sehPKmgKNW8?si=_J_iNC5y5pP38Q4y

Ángela Aguilar – La Llorona
https://youtu.be/owsZaSZ3GuA?si=YNvTCkVx6llGxzyC

Shaggy & Natalia – Piece Of My Heart
https://youtu.be/zRV3J3vV8Hw?si=aCfZHKJxwWD92796

Séptima Raíz – Conciencia
https://youtu.be/w3jN4WOZOfg?si=sZYNXldJQwp0BFgA

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Bernie Sanders tells off Bibi Netanyahu

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Don Bernardo
“Please, do not insult the intelligence of the American people by attempting to distract us from the immoral and illegal war policies of your extremist and racist government,” said the Vermont senator to Israel’s prime minister.

Bernie Sanders to Netanyahu: ‘It Is not antisemitic to hold you accountable’

by Jake Johnson — Common Dreams

Jewish US Senator Bernie Sanders issued a scathing statement Thursday pushing back against Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s characterization of burgeoning protests on American university campuses as “antisemitic,” declaring, “It is not antisemitic to hold you accountable for your actions.”

“No, Mr. Netanyahu. It is not antisemitic or pro-Hamas to point out that in a little over six months, your extremist government has killed 34,000 Palestinians and wounded more than 77,000—70% of whom are women and children,” said Sanders (I-VT). “It is not antisemitic to point out that your bombing has completely destroyed more than 221,000 housing units in Gaza, leaving more than one million people homeless—almost half the population.”

“Antisemitism is a vile and disgusting form of bigotry that has done unspeakable harm to many millions of people,” continued Sanders, who lost family members to the Nazi Holocaust. “But, please, do not insult the intelligence of the American people by attempting to distract us from the immoral and illegal war policies of your extremist and racist government. Do not use antisemitism to deflect attention from the criminal indictment you are facing in the Israeli courts.”

Sanders’s statement came a day after Netanyahu falsely described student protesters speaking out against Israel’s catastrophic war on Gaza as “antisemitic mobs” and likened the demonstrations to “what happened in German universities in the 1930s.”

“It has to be stopped,” Netanyahu said of the campus protests, which have faced violent police crackdowns.

Students at Columbia, Princeton, the City College of New York, the University of Texas at Austin, Northwestern, and other schools nationwide are demanding that the institutions divest from any companies that are participating in or benefiting from Israel’s war on Gaza and publicly support an immediate cease-fire.

On Wednesday, hundreds of UT Austin students walked out of their classrooms and marched to the main lawn of the campus before police officers with horses and riot gear arrived on the scene, arrested dozens, and assaulted some protesters.

“One woman said she saw a large police officer place his entire body weight to detain a young woman protesting,” The Texas Tribune reported. “Law enforcement was also seen kneeling on individuals’ backs and necks, pulling their hair, and in one case punching a protester in the nose.”

Jeremi Suri, a professor of history at UT Austin, told Al Jazeera that contrary to Republican Governor Greg Abbott’s claim, there was “nothing antisemitic” about Wednesday’s protests.

“These students were shouting ‘free Palestine,’ that’s all,” said Suri. “They were saying nothing that was threatening. And as they were standing and shouting, I witnessed the police—the state police, the campus police, the city police—an army of police almost the size [of] the student group… many were carrying guns, many were carrying rifles, and then, within a few minutes, this group of police stormed into the student crowd and started arresting students.”

In his statement Thursday, Sanders emphasized that criticism of Israel’s massively destructive assault on Gaza cannot be conflated with antisemitism.

“It is not antisemitic to note that your government has obliterated Gaza’s civilian infrastructure—electricity, water, and sewage,” said Sanders, who earlier this week voted against a foreign aid package that included $17 billion in additional US military assistance for Israel.

“It is not antisemitic to realize that your government has annihilated Gaza’s healthcare system, knocking 26 hospitals out of service and killing more than 400 healthcare workers,” he continued. “It is not antisemitic to condemn your government’s destruction of all of Gaza’s 12 universities and 56 of its schools, with hundreds more damaged, leaving 625,000 students with no education.”

 

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As the calendar counts down to Election Day…

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who gains
Ricardo Martinelli’s tabloid La Critica made this comparison and asked who gains. If there was a purpose for the alteration it would seem to hurt Ricardo Lombana in early online voting, putting him in the “Siberia” of the middle right-hand side of the ballot rather than the easier-to-find bottom right-hand corner and outside of the proper numerical order. The Electoral Tribunal and its contractors are into a circular finger-point process, but it’s a trivial number of voters who would be affected.

Whether or not Mulino is on the ballot is still up in the air, and…

by Eric Jackson

With five of nine Supreme Court magistrates taking off for vacations and the case of whether or not to disqualify José Raúl Mulino from the May 5 ballot still pending, tension builds.

By the plain black letters of both the constitution and the election law, Mulino doesn’t qualify because he’s not on a slate with a presidential and vice-presidential nominee and because he did not run in any presidential primary. It would be said that this is a special situation, but it’s not as if the candidate who won the RM party’s primary was on the ballot but suddenly died. In more than 60 briefs submitted to the court, the primacy of democracy and the machinations and faults of fugitive convicted criminal Ricardo Martinelli are variously argued.

In any case, the magistrates have suplentes and even if they don’t it has been known to call up lower-court judges to fill in. Plus, Penal Bench magistrate Ariadne García has cut short her vacation so now there is a five-member majority of the high court’s nine principal magistrates in the country. But the the Thursday court session has been called off. There can be a special rescheduling but it looks like the next regular session is on Monday, April 29, six days before the voting.

Add the time and possible problems of reprinting and distributing ballots with Mulino excluded, and that’s one consideration. Add the possible wrath of jurists unwilling to let Ricky Martinelli run out the calendar on them, perhaps. It’s a mess.

Meanwhile in the irregularly scheduled work of mostly untested pollsters that has been published, the trends are tending to show a drop in Mulino’s support and in his absence a close race between Ricardo Lombana and Rómulo Roux. Newer and better polls should be appearing shortly, but things are in flux as they usually are at this point in an election year.

Is it an international issue? Martinelli’s newspapers — purchased with stolen government money — suggest that the OAS or other international bodies are concerned about the situation. Perhaps Spain, which has a warrant out for Martinelli’s arrest, or other European Union members, have reasons to meddle. The United States, which has called Martinelli corrupt and shunned his stand-in Mulino, surely also has reasons why it might meddle. But the greater powers are laying off of this Panamanian election, or at least appear to be doing so.

Leave it to Nicaragua to meddle, by giving Martinelli both asylum in their diplomatic mission here and the ability to make political statements, run an election campaign and conduct media battles from that refuge from a more than 10-year prison sentence. The allowance of such activities violates international law and the Cortizo administration has complained about it:

letter to nicas
Where might this all lead? Hard to say. Why would the Nicaraguans take Martinelli in? That’s even harder to say.
 

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Editorials, Drop the drama; and Drop Ricky’s proxy

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At the ribbon cutting for the ill-fated Trump Ocean Club. Photo by the Presidencia, way back when.

What if…?

Any line of questioning that begins that way usually falls outside the proper purview of journalism, law or history. In any case, shall see.

Neither can the editor nor any contributor to The Panama News read minds, as popular as that sort of claim might be with snobs stuck in high school in-crowd mentalities or the most foolish and annoying of political activists who play malpracticing junior shrink about their adversaries.

AND YET, with a critical case before Panama’s Supreme Court and elections less than two weeks away, a majority of the high court’s magistrates have left the country for overseas vacations. The matter of whether Ricardo Martinelli’s irregularly nominated proxy will be on the ballot has been left pending.

Meanwhile to the north, another thuggish ex-president is trying to run out multiple clocks and court docket calendars to put off days of reckoning until after the vote in November. It may offend US legal traditions – and tradition is a much bigger deal in US law than in the Panamanian system – but banana republic norms do have their fans up there.

All such caveats aside, what if key jurists here and there are acting in the ways that they do because they’re just sick and tired of all the contrived drama?

Not to worry TOO MUCH. Panama’s high court magistrates have alternates – suplentes – who can decide the case while their superiors are off to Disney World or wherever. The US legal system also has its safeguards.

 

 

Lady Justice

Disqualify Mulino

Again, we shall see. The Martinelli stand-in’s lead in the polls has been dropping anyway.

The Constitution says that a presidential candidate shall have a running mate on the ticket. The Electoral Code says that for a major party candidate for president to be on the ballot, she or he must have won a primary. The judgment in the money laundering conviction handed down to Ricardo Martinelli says his political rights are suspended. International law to which Panama is a party provides that a person granted political asylum in a diplomatic mission isn’t allowed to engage in political activity from such asylum.

Arguments sounding in high-minded principles may be accepted, but theoretically the Civil Code system of which Panamanian law is an adherent bases itself firmly on the letter of the law. José Raúl Mulino isn’t qualified to be on the presidential ballot. Ricardo Martinelli Berrocal isn’t qualified to return to power via a proxy candidate.

Panama needs a vast cultural change from top to bottom to get past the culture of corruption that afflicts us. It’s a complicated matter.

 

Hedy
Entertainer and inventor Hedy Lamarr. Portrait by sergemalivert – Deviant Art.

              Your mind is your most potent weapon.

Hedy Lamarr              

Bear in mind…

 

If you are a dog and your owner suggests that you wear a sweater, suggest that he wear a tail.

Fran Lebowitz

 

The secret of being a top notch con man is being able to know what the mark wants, and how to make him think he’s getting it.

Ken Kesey

 

If liberty means anything at all it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.

George Orwell

 

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Resco de Dios, Cambio climático: ¿Víctimas? ¿Culpables?

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Foto por Mikhail Nilov.

Cambio climático: los ciudadanos somos más víctimas que culpables

por Víctor Resco de Dios, Profesor de ingeniería forestal y cambio global, Universitat de Lleida

Las actividades humanas han derivado en una grave crisis ambiental y, aunque la geología oficial no la reconoce como una nueva era, algunos consideran que hemos entrado en el Antropoceno, un nuevo período caracterizado por la omnipresente huella humana.

Pero cuando hablamos de la “huella humana”, ¿a qué nos referimos? Es decir, ¿las actividades de quién, exactamente, han creado esta crisis? Se nos ha repetido hasta la saciedad que nuestro estilo de vida, el de los ciudadanos corrientes, es insostenible y que somos culpables del cambio climático. Pero la repetición de un mantra no transforma un relato en realidad.

Este es uno de los muchos falsos dogmas ecológicos que se han instalado en el imaginario colectivo y que en realidad agravan la crisis ambiental.

Como explico en el libro Ecomitos (Plataforma Actual, 2024), la idea de que los ciudadanos corrientes somos los responsables del cambio climático es, precisamente, el peor de todos los bulos ambientales. ¿Cómo surge esa idea y por qué retrasa la respuesta efectiva a la crisis ambiental?

Desigualdad en las emisiones

Una consecuencia del ecomito de la responsabilidad individual es que la sobrepoblación subyace a todos los problemas ambientales. Si el problema somos los ciudadanos corrientes, la gravedad del problema lógicamente aumenta con el número de habitantes.

Esta idea ha sido ampliamente difundida por diferentes entidades ecologistas, estudios publicados en la literatura científica e incluso personas muy conocidas y queridas, como David Attenborough o Jane Goodall .

Como resultado, estas entidades ecologistas han recibido fondos para ejecutar en los países del sur global programas de control de la natalidad que, en ocasiones, incluyen la esterilización. Estos programas han sido financiados por las grandes corporaciones y algunos gobiernos.

Los datos, sin embargo, dibujan una realidad muy diferente: el 10 % de la población, la más acaudalada, es responsable del 50 % de las emisiones. Por el contrario, el 50 % más humilde de la población apenas emite el 10 % de total.

El problema no es, por tanto, que seamos demasiadas personas, sino que una élite minoritaria está consumiendo una cantidad absolutamente desproporcionada de recursos (y financiando a oenegés para perpetuar el relato).

Las acciones individuales resultan insuficientes

Acabamos de describir los dos extremos: el del 10 % más rico y el del 50 % más pobre. Seguramente, la mayoría de lectores de este artículo se encontrarán en el 40 % intermedio. Los datos nuevamente revelan cómo, aunque hagamos grandes sacrificios a nivel personal para disminuir nuestra huella ambiental, no lograremos pasar a un modo de vida sostenible.

Investigadores del norteamericano Instituto Tecnológico de Massachusets cuantificaron la huella de carbono de un indigente en los Estados Unidos: es de 8,5 toneladas de CO₂ al año, lo que supera la media de un ciudadano español (5,7 toneladas por año) o de cualquier país latinoamericano (que oscila entre las 0,9 toneladas anuales de Honduras y las 4,9 de Chile).

Un ciudadano estadounidense, por tanto, siempre emitirá más que un ciudadano promedio en estos países, independientemente de sus acciones individuales. Esto nos indica la importancia del contexto socioeconómico en el que vivimos, que determinará nuestra huella de carbono.

La trampa de la huella de carbono

La tendencia a culpar a los ciudadanos de la crisis ambiental viene de atrás. En el pasado reciente, el momento más importante seguramente fue la campaña de publicidad desarrollada por la petrolera BP en 2004.

La empresa abría sus comerciales con un concepto que, en aquellos tiempos, nadie conocía: “¿Conoce usted su huella de carbono?”. En el anuncio se facilitaba la dirección web de la primera calculadora de huellas de carbono, de manera que podíamos calcular cuánto CO₂ emitimos a nivel individual. Es decir, cuál es nuestra contribución individual al cambio climático.

Y es ahí cuando, de forma mágica, la responsabilidad por el cambio climático dejó de ser de las grandes corporaciones y pasó a ser de los ciudadanos. Las emisiones indiscriminadas de gases con efecto invernadero ya no resultaban de la quema de combustibles fósiles o de la actividad de las petroleras, sino de nuestro día a día.

La “gran coalición”

Otra consecuencia de la huella de carbono ha sido el desarrollo de los mercados de carbono: las empresas pagan una cuota por el CO₂ que emiten y repercuten ese precio al consumidor. Además, se les permite “compensar” sus emisiones de CO₂ a través de plantaciones de árboles.

El origen de estos mercados lo encontramos en la famosa cumbre climática de Kioto, de 1997, donde los EE. UU. presionaron a la Unión Europea para que aceptara este sistema. En Kioto se estableció también una coalición entre petroleras y distintas entidades ecologistas, que se unieron a los EE. UU. para forzar la aceptación por parte de la UE.

Los datos nos indican que este mercado ha generado unos ingresos extra a las empresas energéticas europeas de unos 7 000 millones de euros al año como resultado del aumento del precio de sus productos. El descenso en las emisiones, sin embargo, ha resultado anecdótico.

Algunas entidades ecologistas han desarrollado programas para promover la plantación de 1 billón de árboles, en colaboración con el Foro de Davos. Es decir, muchas oenegés “conservacionistas” reciben millones de dólares en donaciones de los grandes magnates para que se realicen plantaciones de árboles en su nombre. Por desgracia, la ciencia nos ha demostrado, una y otra vez, que estas plantaciones no sirven para compensar las emisiones: la única opción es olvidarse del greenwashing y dejar de emitir.

La coalición que han establecido las multinacionales contaminantes con las grandes entidades ecologistas ha creado un relato que, como expongo en Ecomitos, impide la acción climática efectiva al culpar al ciudadano de un problema que no ha creado. Y todo esto ocurre en connivencia con el legislador, que es quien realmente tiene competencias para abordar el problema.

Es por ello que la acción ciudadana, donde puede resultar más efectiva, es presionando al legislador para que tome medidas pensando en el bien común, y haciendo caso omiso a la presión de estos lobbies.

Los ciudadanos corrientes son, en muchos casos, más víctimas que culpables. Recuerden, por ejemplo, a las personas fallecidas por el aumento en las olas de calor. O a quienes viven cerca del mar y, en las próximas décadas, puede que se queden sin casa.The Conversation

Víctor Resco de Dios, Profesor de ingeniería forestal y cambio global, Universitat de Lleida

Este artículo fue publicado originalmente en The Conversation. Lea el original.

 

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What the Columbia protesters say

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Columbia protesters hold an ecumenical prayer service. Photo by Jewish Voice for Peace.

Now that you’ve heard what the lobbyists, politicians and corporate media have to say about what they say and do…

Columbia 1
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This Earth Day, let the planet agree about plastics pollution

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plasto ocean
It could be the waters of any nation, or the high seas. The refuse might have drifted over from another country, or have been produced in a third, perhaps at the direction of a company headquartered in a fourth country. “As adults who come to Ottawa to negotiate the plastic treaty, you must protect our rights to live in a healthy and safe environment,” one young activist said. PixaHive graphic.

Ahead of treaty talks, a march to ‘End the Plastic Era’

by Olivia Rosane — Common Dreams

Days before national delegates gather for the fourth and penultimate negotiations to develop a Global Plastics Treaty in Ottawa, Canada, around 500 Indigenous and community representatives, members of civil society and environmental groups, and experts and scientists gathered for a “March to End the Plastic Era” on Sunday.

The protesters, organized under the banner of Break Free From Plastic, called for a treaty that significantly reduces plastic production and centers the frontline communities most impacted by the plastics crisis.

“Delegates must act like our lives depend on it—because they do,” Daniela Duran Gonzales, senior legal campaigner with the Center for International Environmental Law, said in a statement. “Our climate goals, the protection of human health, the enjoyment of human rights, and the rights of future generations all rest on whether the future plastics treaty will control and reduce polymers to successfully end the plastic pollution crisis.”

“Short-sighted business interests must be out of the room because the only way to achieve equitable livelihoods is when we have a healthy planet.”

The official meeting of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) to craft a “international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment,” will run from April 23 to 29 in the Canadian capital.

Break Free From Plastic called the negotiations a “make or break” moment for the treaty, which is supposed to be completed in late 2024 in Busan, South Korean. However, civil society groups have expressed concern that oil-producing countries and the plastics industry will water down the agreement and steer it toward waste management and recycling, which has been revealed to be a false solution to plastic pollution knowingly promoted by the industry for decades.

The last round of negotiations concluded in late 2023 in Nairobi, Kenya, with little progress made after 143 fossil fuel and chemical lobbyists attended.

Salisa Traipipitsiriwat of Thailand, who is the senior campaigner and Southeast Asia plastics project manager for the Environmental Justice Foundation, said ahead of Sunday’s march that it was “crucial for world leaders to step up and put the people and planet at the forefront.”

“Short-sighted business interests must be out of the room because the only way to achieve equitable livelihoods is when we have a healthy planet,” Traipipitsiriwat added.

On Sunday, marchers gathered for a press conference at 10:30 am ET before marching at around 11:30 am from Parliament Hill to the Shaw Center, were negotiations will begin on Tuesday. Crowds began to disperse around 1:30 pm. Participants carried large banners with messages including, “End the plastic era,” “End multigenerational toxic exposure,” and pointing out that 99% of plastics came from fossil fuels. The gathering featured live music and art, including a giant tap pouring out plastics and a “Plastisaurus rex” with the message “Make single-use plastic extinct.”

Photo by Break Free From Plastics.

“Now’s the time to be bold and push for a treaty that cuts plastic production and holds polluters accountable,” Julie Teel Simmonds, a senior attorney at the Center for Biological Diversity, said in a pre-march statement. “I’m inspired to be joining so many advocates in Ottawa, standing up against the enormous harm the fossil fuel and petrochemical industries are causing to people’s health and the planet. I hope to see countries showing ambition this week, and I urge them to remember what’s at stake for future generations.”

Civil society groups have compiled several demands for an ambitious and effective treaty. These are:

    1. Centering human rights, especially those of Indigenous communities, young people, and workers most impacted by plastic pollution;
    2. Protecting the rights of Indigenous peoples throughout the treaty process;
    3. Dealing with plastics across their entire life cycle;
    4. Reducing production as a “nonnegotiable” part of the treaty;
    5. Eliminating toxic chemicals and additives from plastics;
    6. Bolstering reuse systems for plastics that are non-toxic;
    7. Prioritizing first prevention, then reuse, recycling, recovery, and disposal when managing plastic waste;
    8. Ending “waste colonialism” by strengthening regulations for trading plastics;
    9. Guaranteeing a “just transition” for people employed across the plastics lifecycle;
    10. Including “non-party” provisions in the treaty;
    11. Establishing a mechanism to fund countries so they can fully implement the treaty; and
    12. Enshrining conflict-of-interest policies as a protection against plastics industry lobbying.

The coalition emphasized the need to tackle the problem of plastic from cradle to grave.
“Plastic doesn’t just become pollution when it’s thrown away,” said Jessica Roff, the US and Canada plastics and petrochemicals program manager for the Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives. “Plastic is pollution, from the moment the fossil fuels are extracted from the ground to the eternity of waste it spawns.”

Chrie Wilke, global advocacy manager for the Waterkeeper Alliance, said “Clearly the crux of the plastic pollution crisis is too much plastic being produced. There is no way to recycle our way out of this. We must face the fact that plastic and petrochemicals, at current production levels, endanger waterways, communities, and fisheries across the globe. Cutting production and implementing non-plastic alternatives and reuse systems is essential.”

plasto image
Photo by Ben Powless/Survival Media Agency

Activists also emphasized the environmental justice implications of plastic pollution, and how some communities and groups are more burdened than others, both from the dangers of the production process and from waste disposal.

“Children and youth like me suffer the most and are recognized as a vulnerable group,” said Aeshnina ‘Nina’ Azzahra, the founder of River Warrior Indonesia. “My playground and my future are at risk. We all want our environment to be plastic-free, but please don’t put your burden on the other side of the world—this is NOT fair. As adults who come to Ottawa to negotiate the plastic treaty, you must protect our rights to live in a healthy and safe environment.”

Jo Banner, co-founder and co-directer of The Descendants Project, said:”Frontline community members, such as myself, are participating in these treaty negotiations with heavy hearts as our communities back home are struggling with sickness and disease caused by the upstream production of plastic.”

“Although our hearts are heavy, they are full with passion urging negotiators to aim for an ambitious treaty that caps plastic production,” Banner added. “Areas such as my hometown, located in the heart of Louisiana’s Cancer Alley, need a strong treaty now. There is no more time to waste.”

 

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El escrito de Carlos Bolívar Pedreschi ante la Corte Suprema

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him
Foto por la entonces Presidencia.

Pedreschi, “…de ningún convenio de derechos humanos debe protegerse a quienes se han auto-inflingido….”

HONORABLE MAGISTRADA PRESIDENTA DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA:

Yo, CARLOS BOLÍVAR PEDRESCHI, varón, panameño, mayor de edad, casado, abogado en ejercicio, con cédula de identidad personal No.2-33-746, con oficinas en Avenida Federico Boyd y Calle 51, No.20, distrito y provincia de Panamá, corregimiento de Bella Vista, lugar donde recibo notificaciones personales y teléfono 269-4966, por este medio, comparezco, en tiempo oportuno, ante el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia a efecto de presentar mi ALEGATO en Avenida Federico Boyd y Calle 51, No.20,distrito y provincia de Panamá, corregimiento de Bella Vista, lugar donde recibo notificaciones personales y teléfono 269-4966, por este medio, comparezco, en tiempo oportuno, ante el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia a efecto de presentar mi ALEGATO en el proceso indicado al margen superior derecho del presente escrito.

En cumplimiento de la decisión adoptada de alegar, transcribo a continuación, para los efectos correspondientes, mi opinión sobre los distintos aspectos constitucionales en los cuales fundamento mi posición en cuanto a la inconstitucionalidad del segundo punto de la parte resolutiva del Acuerdo 11-1 de 4 de marzo del Tribunal Electoral.


I. CANDIDATURAS PRESIDENCIALES SIN VICEPRESIDENTE

A.La competencia privativa de la Corte Suprema de Justicia La opinión sobre el tema enunciado exige el esclarecimiento de dos extremos decisivos. El primero de éstos demanda determinar si la Corte Suprema de Justicia tiene o no competencia para conocer de los actos emanados del Tribunal Electoral que violen normas constitucionales. El segundo extremo demanda precisar si lo decidido por el Tribunal Electoral viola o no alguno de los artículos de la Constitución política del país.En cuanto al primer extremo, como lo he sostenido hace mucho tiempo, no tengo la menor duda de que la Corte Suprema de Justicia sí tiene competencia para conocer y decidir de los actos del Tribunal Electoral violatorios de la Constitución. El problema de la competencia está igualmente claro para la Corte Suprema de Justicia la cual ha venido conociendo, sin dudar de su competencia para hacerlo, de recursos de inconstitucionalidad contra actos del Tribunal Electoral que incluyen. Acuerdos de Sala, como es el caso del Acuerdo 11-1 mencionado. Sobre el punto, la Constitución no ha podido ser más clara. En su artículo 143dice textualmente lo siguiente:

“…Las decisiones en materia electoral del Tribunal Electoral
únicamente son recurribles ante el mismo, y una vez cumplidos los
trámites de Ley, serán definitivas, irrevocables y obligatorias.
Contra estas decisiones solo podrá ser admitido el recurso de
inconstitucionalidad”. (Énfasis suplido)

Sobre el tema manifiesto que nunca he tenido la menor duda de que en Panamá la Corte Suprema de Justicia, en ejercicio del control privativo de la constitucionalidad, puede conocer de los recursos de inconstitucionalidad que se presenten contra actos emanados del Tribunal Electoral que violen la Constitución Política del país. Que recuerde, nadie
en Panamá había dudado de esta competencia y menos la propia Corte.

El tema lo he traído a colación porque, recientemente, algunos abogados han sostenido públicamente que los actos del Tribunal Electoral que violen la Constitución del país no son recurribles ante la Corte Suprema de Justicia, ni ante ninguna otra instancia.

Mi opinión data de hace más de 58 años y así quedó consignada en las páginas 264, 265, 266 y 267 de mi obra titulada el Control de la Constitucionalidad en Panamá, editada en Madrid, España, por ediciones Guadarrama. No obstante la longevidad de esta opinión, la normativa constitucional en la cual descansa no ha variado y tampoco la decisión del
Pleno, en acatamiento de la Constitución, de conocer de todo acto del Tribunal Electoral violatorio de la Constitución.

B. La inconstitucionalidad del segundo punto de la parte resolutiva del Acuerdo 11-1 de 4 de marzo de 2024 que designa candidatura presidencial sin vicepresidente.

Aclarado el primer extremo, corresponde ahora valorar el segundo, esto es, si es constitucional o no lo decidido por el Tribunal Electoral en el caso objeto de este alegato.

Antes de emitir opinión sobre este aspecto conviene dejar constancia de que, en mi concepto, la redacción del artículo 177 es suficientemente clara:

“… Con el Presidente de la República será elegido, de la
misma manera y por igual período, un Vicepresidente…”.

Debo agregar, sobre el problema confrontado; esto es, que la papeleta consigne una fórmula incompleta, el que no tengo la menor duda de que este problema se produjo no por el texto constitucional, sino por la falta de previsión en el Código Electoral y por la falta del Tribunal Electoral al no haber dictaminado un procedimiento legal para que los partidos en
cuestión estableciesen una fórmula presidencial y vicepresidencial completa, tal cual lo indica la Constitución. Hacia futuro, el Código Electoral deberá contemplar en su texto el caso de muerte o inhabilitación del candidato a la presidencia antes de las elecciones, e igualmente, el caso de muerte o inhabilitación del Vicepresidente antes de las elecciones.

Por lo anterior, la decisión del Tribunal Electoral no solo viola uno, sino varios artículos de la Constitución. Estos artículos son el 177, el 181 y el 185.

Más aún, curiosamente el propio Tribunal Electoral en la decisión varias veces citada ha admitido el riesgo de violación a la Constitución, concretamente al artículo 177 de la Carta Magna. Copio, a continuación, los párrafos del Acuerdo 11-1 del Tribunal Electoral que confirman lo dicho:

1. “El vicepresidente tiene atribuciones que ejerce paralelamente
con el presidente de la República, ambos en ejercicio del cargo”;
2. “…la nómina presidencial no puede prescindir de un candidato a
vicepresidente”;

3. “….que se trata de dos cargos a elegir bajo el mismo
procedimiento y la ausencia de uno de los dos haría que la
nómina incompleta generara un incumplimiento al mandato
constitucional del artículo 177.”
4. “Se requiere la elección de un vicepresidente para que ejerza las
funciones que establece el artículo 185 de la Constitución
Política; es decir que la nómina debe estar completa para cumplir
con lo establecido en el artículo 177 de la Constitución”

De mi parte, señalo lo siguiente:

1. Este artículo 177, claramente dispone que con el presidente de la República será elegido un vicepresidente, quien lo reemplazará en sus faltas, y que ambos serán elegidos por sufragio popular
directo por mayoría de votos.
2. Se trata, pues, de que dicho artículo establece una fórmula presidencial que se compone de un presidente y de un
vicepresidente.
3. De su parte, el artículo 181 indica que el presidente y el vicepresidente tomarán posesión de sus respectivos cargos ante la Asamblea Nacional.
4. Como resulta de lo dicho, por disposición constitucional un presidente no puede ser elegido sin un vicepresidente.

Ante el duro y puro texto del artículo 177, confirmado por el artículo 181 y el artículo 185, en mi concepto, la Constitución no autoriza, pudiendo haberlo hecho, candidaturas a la presidencia sin vicepresidente. Se trata, pues, de una suerte de camisa de fuerza que contra lo que se quisiera, no tiene cómo salvar la solución que establece el Acuerdo 11-1 de 4 de marzo del Tribunal Electoral sin violar la Constitución.

No obstante, los claros criterios de inconstitucionalidad analizados por el propio Tribunal Electoral, el mismo encontró justificación para explicar la decisión arbitrada argumentando que de no ser así se dejaría a los partidos Realizando Metas y Alianza sin participación en la elección presidencial indicando que ello implicaría la conculcación del derecho de los mismos y de toda su membresía y que los convenios internacionales de derechos humanos suscritos por Panamá, que hacen parte del bloque de la constitucionalidad, obligan a hacer una “interpretación amplia de la ley para garantizar el ejercicio de todos los derechos que podrían verse afectados de darse una interpretación restrictiva de las normas legales
aplicables al caso”.

En mi concepto, las razones expuestas por el Tribunal Electoral para justificar la decisión adoptada violando los artículos 177, 181 y 185 de la Constitución son insuficientes, aun con fundamento en el bloque de la
constitucionalidad por las siguientes:


1. Los problemas y normas deben analizarse desde su universalidad y no segmentariamente ni a retazos.
2. La universalidad del problema constitucional pasa por el análisis de las situaciones de hecho y de derecho alrededor del mismo.

En ese sentido, tanto el Tribunal Electoral como los partidos políticos afectados por el texto del artículo 177, que conocían
perfectamente que la Constitución prevé una fórmula que se compone de un presidente y un vicepresidente, pudieron haber resuelto el problema ante el hecho sobradamente conocido, nacional e internacionalmente, del fundado riesgo de que el candidato a la presidencia de la República terminara, como en efecto terminó, con una sentencia condenatoria en firme que lo inhabilita para presentarse a las elecciones como candidato presidencial. Esto era completamente conocido por parte, tanto del Tribunal Electoral, como de los partidos afectados.

3. La realidad descrita, en mi concepto, es la que no permite una interpretación que pretenda justificar la violación constitucional a título de no conculcar el derecho de los partidos afectados y de aquellos que, en conocimiento de esta realidad constitucional, decidieron correr el riesgo que el referido acuerdo del Tribunal  Electoral propone conculcar.

A lo dicho es oportuno señalar lo siguiente:

1. Los partidos afectados contaban con la seguridad de la contingencia de una condena en firme sobre el expresidente Ricardo Martinelli con lo cual la misma se podía prever.
2. Tan convencidos estaban sus propios abogados de su responsabilidad y consiguiente condena que, desde el año 2017 hasta octubre de 2023, hicieron todo lo posible para que el caso prescribiera, porque justamente, contaban con fundados temores de que si se producía un juicio la condena era altamente previsible, como en efecto ocurrió.
3. En el caso que nos ocupa, la Corte debe abstenerse de consideraciones políticas y basar su decisión en razones estrictamente constitucionales.

Por ejemplo y solo para citar algunos casos, debe abstenerse de consideraciones políticas como las que siguen:
a. Que el candidato eventualmente afectado fue, por cinco años, Ministro de Seguridad del gobierno conocido nacional e internacionalmente como el más corrompido del país.
b. Que el gobierno al que perteneció por cinco años fue una típica cleptocracia donde resultaron condenados y algunos detenidos, el propio expresidente de la república y buena parte de sus ministros de estado, incluyendo al propio candidato presidencial que también conoció cárcel por varios meses.
c. Que el candidato presidencial ha declarado públicamente que ayudará a su padrino político, actualmente condenado y asilado en una embajada, a evitar las consecuencias de esa condena.

Dicho lo anterior, siento que no es necesario el rosario de ejemplos de carácter políticos descartables para los propósitos de una decisión constitucionalmente fundada.

Termino reiterando la exigencia de fallar en estricto Derecho y omitir todas consideraciones políticas; en fallar oportunamente, pues de no hacerlo la Corte caería en la irresponsabilidad de dejarle al país un problema eventualmente peor del que confronta a la fecha.

Afortunadamente para la Corte, la misma cuenta con sobrados fundamentos constitucionales para declarar inconstitucional el punto segundo de la parte resolutiva del Acuerdo 11-1 de 4 de marzo de 2024.

El país está urgido de higiene moral y un fallo de inconstitucionalidad como el que favorezco en este alegato sería una oportuna y práctica contribución de la Corte Suprema de Justicia.

Por el valor jurídico que tiene, reproduzco a continuación, la parte relativa al control de la convencionalidad en función del bloque de la constitucionalidad, que se consigna en el alegato que, a propósito de este mismo caso, presenta la licenciada Nadia Pedreschi de Halman y con el cual coincido:

“EL BLOQUE DE LA CONSTITUCIONALIDAD NO AMPARA LA
SITUACIÓN CONFRONTADA Y MENOS PUEDE CONSTITUIRSE EN
FUNDAMENTO PARA JUSTIFICAR QUE LAS NÓMINAS
PRESIDENCIALES NO TENGAN CANDIDATOS A LA
VICEPRESIDENCIA INFRINGIENDO LO DISPUESTOS POR LOS
ARTÍCULOS 177, 181 Y 185 DE LA CONSTITUCIÓN


PRIMERO: Es un hecho que tanto los partidos políticos sobre cuyo candidato a la presidencia pende un recurso de inconstitucionalidad, como el propio Tribunal Electoral tenían cómo evitar la situación en ciernes.

Los partidos políticos en cuestión podían haber previsto en aquéllas primarias en que escogían a un candidato a la presidencia sobre el cual, en aquel momento, pendía la decisión de un recurso de apelación sobre una sentencia condenatoria, la posibilidad de que la misma fuera confirmada y, por lo tanto, podían haber escogido un candidato a la presidencia distinto al escogido en las elecciones primarias de los mismos; candidato éste que, a su vez, hubiese podido designar un candidato a la vicepresidencia de manera que la fórmula presidencial, además de estar completa, hubiera sido el resultado de la elección democrática en primarias del cargo de presidente a las elecciones presidenciales, como lo establece el Código Electoral.

SEGUNDO: También es un hecho que el Tribunal Electoral conocía la realidad descrita anteriormente y, por tanto, en uso de las facultades que le adscribe el artículo 143 arbitrar una fórmula no inconstitucional, que permitiese la participación de los partidos políticos afectados con una fórmula completa, esto es, la de Presidente y Vicepresidente.

TERCERO: La tesis del Acuerdo 11-1 del Tribunal Electoral para establecer una fórmula presidencial incompleta que es inconstitucional descansa en lo que se conoce como el bloque de la constitucionalidad que ha incorporado al derecho constitucional patrio, convenios internacionales de derechos humanos suscritos por Panamá.

En ese sentido el referido Acuerdo 11-1 indica que dichos convenios internacionales de derechos humanos suscritos por Panamá le obligan a hacer una “interpretación amplia” de la ley para garantizar el ejercicio de todos los derechos que podrían verse afectados ya que de darse una “interpretación restrictiva” se dejaría a los partidos Realizando Metas y Alianza sin participación en la elección presidencial lo que, en opinión del Tribunal Electoral, implica conculcar el derecho de ambos partidos y de toda su membresía, y el derecho de todos los candidatos cuya postulación ya está en firme y que no han tenido nada que ver con los hechos que han producido la inhabilitación del candidato presidencial.

Como se aprecia, en el razonamiento del Tribunal Electoral no ha sido contemplado si, cómo y por qué, la denominada “interpretación amplia” resulta amparada en el bloque de la constitucionalidad, más allá de referirse al resultado que la llamada interpretación restrictiva traería como consecuencia.

CUARTO: Los convenios de derechos humanos suscritos por Panamá, no alcanzan para justificar, la tesis de evitar la conculcación del derecho a ser elegido producida por la propia colectividad política a la cual se le pretende proteger dicho derecho ni de los miembros de estas colectividades a elegir. La razón es simple, al amparo de ningún convenio de derechos humanos debe protegerse a quienes se han auto-inflingido el efecto de quedar sin participación en las elecciones generales habiendo tenido sobradas oportunidades para conjurar este riesgo porque las reglas del juego electoral estaban claramente establecidas a nivel constitucional como también las consecuencias legales de la actuación políticamente arriesgada de ambos colectivos políticos.

QUINTO: El noble y justo propósito de los convenios de derechos humanos suscritos por Panamá y otros estados no acepta una arbitraria interpretación que, a título de proteger el derecho de ser representada de  una colectividad política produzca los siguientes efectos:

  1. Un fuero y privilegio del que no gozarán otras colectividades políticas que respetaron las reglas del juego electoral ya conocidas;
  2. Conculcar a dicha colectividad política que, conforme al Tribunal Electoral, resulta afectada, el derecho de elegir un vicepresidente; y
  3. Conculcar el derecho del país a tener un Vicepresidente que cumpla las funciones que expresamente establece la Constitución, en el caso de que la nómina presidencial así concebida por el Tribunal resulte ganadora.
    Evidentemente, las convenciones de derechos humanos suscritas por Panamá no tienen el propósito de producir los efectos señalados.

SEXTO: Finalmente, el propio Tribunal Electoral que arbitró el Acuerdo 11-1 cuyo punto segundo es inconstitucional y que conocía que lo era porque así lo evidenció, tenía las herramientas para garantizar una solución legal que, no siendo inconstitucional, permitiese la participación de dichos partidos en la contienda electoral y no lo hizo.”

Panamá, 16 de abril de 2024.

Dr. Carlos Bolívar Pedreschi

Cedula 2-33- 746

 

Contact us by email at / Contáctanos por correo electrónico a thepanamanews@gmail.com

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